Cholesterol: And Its effects

Cholesterol is a type of fat made in the liver and found in animal foods.

CHOLESTEROL IS NEEDED FOR IMPORTANT BODY FUNCTIONS. Such as...

* Building cell walls
* Protecting nerves
* Making hormones.

THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF CHOLESTEROL.
* THE GOOD. (HDL or High Density Lipid)
* THE BAD and the UGLY!! (LDL or Low Density Lipid..)

A higher level of HDL is needed to carry LDL from the BLOOD back to theLIVER to be ELIMINATED from the body.If there is a higher level of LDL cholesterol in the BLOOD this may:
* Cause high blood pressure!
* Raise your risk of heart attack!
* Raise your risk of stroke!
* Cause the kidneys to fail!

Cholesterol is broken down into LDL which is needed by the body cells. Once the cells are satisfied the unused LDL remains to become what is known asblood cholesterol.The main danger of high blood cholesterol is that fatty plaques may formwhich will decrease the diameter of blood vessels. This leads to arestriction of the flow of blood and oxygen to the tissues of the body.

* If an artery supplying blood to the HEART becomes blocked you may have aheart attack!
* If an artery supplying blood to the BRAIN becomes blocked you may have aStroke!
* If an artery supplying blood to the kidney becomes blocked you may sufferkidney failure.WHAT CAUSES HIGH BLOOD
The main causes are:
* Eating too much high saturated fat. i.e. fat found in butter and dairyproducts, cakes biscuits and take away foods.
* Being overweight..* Not exercising.

WHAT CAN ONE DO TO LOWER YOUR CHOLESTEROL?
Eat more of:
* Fruits and vegetables.
* Oily fish (tuna, mackeral and herring).
* Skinless chicken.
* Fibre rich foods, e.g. oats and wholemeal bread.
Eat less of:
* Fried take away fast foods.
* High fat dairy products and eggs.
* Saturated fats and oils.
* Biscuits, cakes and pastries.

USE:
* Unsaturated margarine instead of butter.
* Unsaturated oils (olive oil) instead of lard.
* Low fat cooking methods: steaming, grilling and microwaving.
* Make exercise a part of your day. (Walking is good).
* Not smoke
* Drink more water.

THE LINK BETWEEN BLOOD CHOLESTEROL LEVELS AND HEART DISEASE IS CLEAR.STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT IF AN AVERAGE MAN CAN REDUCE HIS BLOOD CHOLESTEROLBY ONLY 10% HE CAN REDUCE HIS RISK OF HEART ATTACK BY UP TO 50%!!

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Sodium Lauryl sulfate: A food additive and its side effects

Chemical Name: Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) - RN: 151-21-3

Molecular Formula: C12-H26-O4-S.Na

Molecular Weight: 288.38

Color/Form: White or cream-colored crystals, flakes, or powder.

Odor: Faint odor of fatty substances.

Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) is a detergent surfactant commonly used as a cleansing agent in all sorts of personal care products. It appears in toothpastes, shampoos, bubble baths, shaving creams -- any product that requires suds. Sodium lauryl sulfate is useful in a wide variety of personal care applications in which viscosity building and foam characteristics are of importance. Because of its low salt content, this product is particularly useful in formulations that are sensitive to high levels of sodium chloride. It is compatible with alkanolamides and amphoterics so that maximum optimization of foam and viscosity characteristics can be reached in the finished product.

Who uses Sodium lauryl sulfate?

Brand Name Products:
Ivory Hand Dishwashing Liquid
Crest Cavity Protection Cool Mint Gel
Aussie Mega Shampoo with Papaya Extract
Sesame Street Bubble Bath, Splashin Berry Bubbles
Herbal Essence Ultra Rich Moisturizing Body Wash
Colgate Kids Looney Tunes Upright Toothpaste
Colgate Toothpaste, Regular



Sodium lauryl sulfate is:

Used in shampoos, hand soaps, hair dyes, bath products, shaving creams and medicated ointments. It is especially useful for opaque, pearlescent, or cream products.

Used in hand dishwashing detergents; used in many cleaning compounds because of cleaning ability, mildness and foaming capability;

Used in electrophoretic separation and molecular weight estimation of proteins; wetting agent, detergent, especially in the textile industry;

Used in the preparation of blood samples for red blood cell counts;

Used as a cleansing agent in cosmetics;

Used as a whipping aid in dried egg products;

Used in the characterization of quaternary ammonium compounds;

Used in the preparation of samples for dietary fiber content

Food additive (emulsifier and thickener)

Used in the electroplating industry, particularly nickel and zinc; as an emulsifier, wetting agent and adjuvant in insecticides; as an emulsifier and penetrant in varnish and paint remover; in the formulation of injection-molded explosives; anti-foaming agent in solid rocket propellants; as a model surfactant and reference toxicant in aquatic and mammalian toxicological testing.

Hazardous Decomposition:

When heated to decomposition it emits toxic fumes of (sulfur oxides and sodium oxides). since it is used as an additive in milk, when milk is boiled, we inhale the poisonous gases that are emitted in industries at our home at our convenience. This also results in slow death. This type of adulteration is done in major cities, where everything is business and life is past and the Health administrations are corrupt. Please note the hazards which these poisonous gases can induce on a baby. This explains why the mortality rate is on a high in metropolitan cities compared to the rural and native villages and towns.


FDA Requirements:

Coatings may be applied to fresh citrus fruit for protection of the fruit in accordance with the following conditions: (a) the coating is applied in the minimum amount required to accomplish the intended effect and (b) the coating may be formulated from /sodium lauryl sulfate/ ... used in the minimum quantity required to accomplish the intended effect. Limitation: complying with 172.822. As a film former.



The food additive sodium lauryl sulfate may be safely used in food in accordance with the following conditions: (a)the additive meets the following specifications: 1. It is a mixture of sodium alkyl sulfates consisting chiefly of sodium lauryl sulfate and 2. it has a minimum content of 90% sodium alkyl sulfates. It is used or intended for use: 1. As an emulsifier in or with egg whites whereby the additive does not exceed the following limits: egg white solids, 1000 ppm; frozen egg whites, 125 ppm; and liquid egg whites, 125 ppm. 2. As a whipping agent at a level not to exceed 0.5% by weight of gelatine used in the preparation of marshmallows. 3. As a surfactant in fumaric acid-acidulated dry beverage base whereby the additive does not exceed 25 ppm of the finished beverage and such beverage base in not for use in a food for which a standard of identity established under section 401 of the Act precludes such use. As a surfactant in fumaric acid-acidulated fruit juice drinks whereby the additive does not exceed 25 ppm of the finished fruit juice drink and it is not used in a fruit juice drink for which a standard of identity established under section 401 of the Act precludes such use. 4. As a wetting agent at a level not to exceed 10 ppm in the partition of high and low melting fractions of crude vegetable oils and animal fats, provided that the partition step is followed by a conventional refining process that includes alkali neutralization and deodorization of the fats and oils.

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Red Bull: And its Side-effects

Red Bull is SOLD in all the supermarkets IN OUR country and our children ARE CONSUMING IT ON A TRIAL BASIS, IT can be mortal.

RED BULL was created to stimulate the brains in people who are subjected to great physical force and in stress coma and never to be consumed like an innocent drink or soda pop.

RED BULL IS the energizer DRINK that is commercialized world-wide with its slogan:'It increases endurance; awakens the concentration capacity and the speed of reaction, offers more energy and improves the mood. All this can be found in a can of RED BULL , the power drink of the millennium.

'RED BULL has managed to arrive at almost 100 countries worldwide. The RED BULL logo is targeted at young people and sportsmen, two attractive segments that have been captivated by the stimulus that the drink provides.

It was created by Dietrich Mateschitz, an industrialist of Austrian origin who discovered the drink by chance. It happened during a business trip to Hong Kong , when he was working at a factory that manufactured toothbrushes.

The liquid, based on a formula that contained caffeine and taurine, caused a rage in that country. Imagine the grand success of this drink in Europe where the product still did not exist, besides it was a superb opportunity to become an entrepreneur.
BUT THE TRUTH ABOUT THIS DRINK IS ANOTHER THING:

FRANCE and DENMARK have just prohibited it as a cocktail of death, due to its vitamin components mixed with GLUCURONOLACTONE' , a highly dangerous chemical, which was developed by the United States Department of Defense during the sixties to stimulate the moral of the troops based in VIETNAM, which acted like a hallucinogenic drug that calmed the stress of the war.

But their effects in the organism were so devastating, that it was discontinued, because of the high index of cases of migraines, cerebral tumors and diseases of the liver that was evident in the soldiers who consumed it.

And in spite of it, in the can of RED BULL you can still find as one of its components: GLUCURONOLACTONE, categorized medically as a stimulant. But what it does not say on the can of ,RED BULL are the consequences of its consumption, and that has forced us to place a series of WARNINGS:

1. It is dangerous to take it if you do not engage in physical exercise afterwards, since its energizing function accelerates the heart rate and can cause a sudden attack.

2. You run the risk of undergoing a cerebral hemorrhage, because RED BULL contains components that dilute the blood so that the heart utilizes less energy to pump the blood, and thus be able to deliver physical force with less effort being exerted.

3. It is prohibited to mix RED BULL with alcohol, because the mixture turns the drink into a " Deadly Bomb " that attacks the liver directly, causing the affected area never to regenerate anymore.

4. One of the main components of RED BULL is the B12 vitamin, used in medicine to recover patients who are in a coma; from here the hypertension and the state of excitement which is experienced after taking it, as if you were in a drunken state.

5. The regular consumption of RED BULL triggers off symptoms in the form of a series of irreversible nervous and neuronal diseases.

CONCLUSION: It is a drink that should be prohibited in the entire world as when it is mixed with alcohol it creates a TIME BOMB for the human body, mainly between innocent adolescents and adults with little experience.

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Some uses of Salt

Although one may not realize it, simple table salt has great uses other than simply seasoning your food. The following list will give you some uses of salt, many of which you probably didn't realize:

Soak stained hankies in salt water before washing.

Sprinkle salt on your shelves to keep ants away.

Soak fish in salt water before descaling; the scales will come off easier.

Put a few grains of rice in your salt shaker for easier pouring.

Add salt to green salads to prevent wilting.

Test the freshness of eggs in a cup of salt water; fresh eggs sink; bad ones float.

Add a little salt to your boiling water when cooking eggs; a cracked egg will stay in its shell this way.

A tiny pinch of salt with egg whites makes them beat up fluffier.

Soak wrinkled apples in a mildly salted water solution to perk them up.

Rub salt on your pancake griddle and your flapjacks won't stick.

Soak toothbrushes in salt water before you first use them; they will last longer.

Use salt to clean your discolored coffee pot.

Mix salt with turpentine to whiten you bathtub and toilet bowl.

Soak your nuts in salt brine overnight and they will crack out of their shells whole.

Just tap the end of the shell with a hammer to break it open easily.

Boil clothespins in salt water before using them and they will last longer.

Clean brass, copper and pewter with paste made of salt and vinegar, thickened with flour.

Add a little salt to the water your cut flowers will stand in for a longer life.

Pour a mound of salt on an ink spot on your carpet; let the salt soak up the stain.

Clean your iron by rubbing some salt on the damp cloth on the ironing surface.

Adding a little salt to the water when cooking foods in a double boiler will make the food cook faster.

Use a mixture of salt and lemon juice to clean piano keys.

To fill plaster holes in your walls, use equal parts of salt and starch, with just enough water to make a stiff putty.

Rinse a sore eye with a little salt water.

Mildly salted water makes an effective mouthwash.

Use it hot for a sore throat gargle.

Dry salt sprinkled on your toothbrush makes a good tooth polisher.

Use salt for killing weeds in your lawn.

Eliminate excess suds with a sprinkle of salt.

A dash of salt in warm milk makes a more relaxing beverage.

Before using new glasses, soak them in warm salty water for a while.

A dash of salt enhances the taste of tea.

Salt improves the taste of cooking apples.

Soak your clothes line in salt water to prevent your clothes from freezing to the line; likewise, use salt in your final rinse to prevent the clothes from freezing.

Rub any wicker furniture you may have with salt water to prevent yellowing.

Freshen sponges by soaking them in salt water.

Add raw potatoes to stews and soups that are too salty.

Soak enamel pans in salt water overnight and boil salt water in them next day to remove burned-on stains.

Clean your greens in salt water for easier removal of dirt.

Gelatin sets more quickly when a dash of salt is added.

Fruits put in mildly salted water after peeling will not discolor.

Fabric colors hold fast in salty water wash.

Milk stays fresh longer when a little salt is added.

Use equal parts of salt and soda for brushing your teeth.

Sprinkle salt in your oven before scrubbing clean.

Soaked discolored glass in a salt and vinegar solution to remove stains.

Clean greasy pans with a paper towel and salt.

Salty water boils faster when cooking eggs.

Add a pinch of salt to whipping cream to make it whip more quickly.

Sprinkle salt in milk-scorched pans to remove odor.

A dash of salt improves the taste of coffee.

Boil mismatched hose in salty water and they will come out matched.

Salt and soda will sweeten the odor of your refrigerator.

Cover wine-stained fabric with salt; rinse in cool water later.

Remove offensive odors from stove with salt and cinnamon.

A pinch of salt improves the flavor of cocoa.

To remove grease stains in clothing, mix one part salt to four parts alcohol.

Salt and lemon juice? Removes mildew.

Sprinkle salt between sidewalk bricks where you don't want grass growing.

Polish your old kerosene lamp with salt for a better look.

Remove odors from sink drainpipes with a strong, hot solution of salt water.

If a pie bubbles over in your oven, put a handful of salt on top of the spilled juice.

The mess won't smell and will bake into a dry, light crust which will wipe off easily when the oven has cooled

Drop a picec of charcoal in any curry to remove excess salt when prepared for any ceremonies.

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Some uses of Lemon Juice

Lemon is one of those super foods with a myriad health and cosmetic benefits. There are a few persons for whom it is an allergen, so make sure you are not allergic to this natural product, before you start enjoying the many benefits.

1. Lemon being a citrus fruit , fights against infection. It helps in production of WBC's and antibodies in blood which attacks the invading microorganism and prevents infection.

2. Lemon is an antioxidant which deactivates the free radicals preventing many dangerous diseases like stroke, cardiovascular diseases and cancers.

3. Lemon lowers blood pressure and increases the levels of HDL (good cholesterol) .

4. Lemon is found to be anti-carcinogenic which lower the rates of colon, prostate, and breast cancer . They prevent faulty metabolism in the cell, which can predispose a cell to becoming carcinogenic. Also blocks the formation of nitrosamines in the gut.

5. Lemon juice is said to give a glow to the skin.

6. A few drops of lemon juice in hot water are believed to clear the digestive system and purify liver as well.

7. The skin of lemon dried under the sun and then ground to make powder can be applied to the hair for a few minutes before bath which relieves head ache and cools the body.

8. Applying lemon juice to acne dries the existing ones and prevents from getting more.

9. Lemon juice acts as a natural hair lightner and skin bleach which reduces the pigment melanin and prevents the risk of chemical allergic reactions which is common with hair dyes and bleaches.

10. Lemon juice is given to relieve gingivitis, stomatitis, and inflammation of the tongue.

11. Lemon juice is given to prevent common cold.

12. Lemon juice is given to prevent or treat urinary tract infection and gonorrhea.

13. Lemon juice is applied to the sites of bites and stings of certain insects to relieve its poison and pain.

14. Lemon juice relieves colic pain and gastric problems .

15. Lemon juice soothes the dry skin when applied with little glycerin .

16. Lemon juice used for marinating seafood or meat kills bacteria and other organisms present in them, thereby prevents many gastro-intestinal tract infections.

17. Lemon juice with a pinch of salt (warm) every morning lowers cholesterol levels and brings down your weight.

18. Lemon juice is the best drink to prevent dehydration and shock in case of diarrhea.

19. Lemon juice can also be used as a mouthwash. It removes plaque, whitens the teeth and strengthens the enamel.

20. A table spoon on thick lemon syrup everyday relieves asthma.

21. Lemon juice relieves chilblains and itchy skin.

22. Gargling lemon juice relieves throat infection and also used as a treatment for diphtheria .

23. Lemon juice is an excellent treatment for dandruff and greasy hair .

24. Lemon applied over the face removes wrinkles and keeps you young.

25. Lemon juice helps to prevent and cure osteoarthritis .

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History of Aromacity | Heterocyclics | Polycyclics

History of Aromacity

The first known use of the word "aromatic" as a chemical term -- namely, to apply to compounds that contain the phenyl radical -- occurs in an article by August Wilhelm Hofmann in 1855.If this is indeed the earliest introduction of the term, it is curious that Hofmann says nothing about why he introduced an adjective indicating olfactory character to apply to a group of chemical substances, only some of which have notable aromas. It is the case, however, that many of the most odoriferous organic substances known are terpenes, which are not aromatic in the chemical sense. But terpenes and benzenoid substances do have a chemical characteristic in common, namely higher unsaturation indexes than many aliphatic compounds, and Hofmann may not have been making a distinction between the two categories.

The cyclohexatriene structure for benzene was first proposed by August Kekulé in 1865. Over the next few decades, most chemists readily accepted this structure, since it accounted for most of the known isomeric relationships of aromatic chemistry. However, it was always puzzling that this purportedly highly-unsaturated molecule was so unreactive toward addition reactions.
The discoverer of the electron J. J. Thomson, in 1921 placed three equivalent electrons between each carbon atom in benzene.

An explanation for the exceptional stability of benzene is conventionally attributed to Sir Robert Robinson, who was apparently the first (in 1925 ) to coin the term aromatic sextet as a group of six electrons that resists disruption.
In fact, this concept can be traced further back, via Ernest Crocker in 1922,to Henry Edward Armstrong, who in 1890, in an article entitled The structure of cycloid hydrocarbons, wrote the (six) centric affinities act within a cycle...benzene may be represented by a double ring (sic) ... and when an additive compound is formed, the inner cycle of affinity suffers disruption, the contiguous carbon-atoms to which nothing has been attached of necessity acquire the ethylenic condition.
Here, Armstrong is describing at least four modern concepts. First, his "affinity" is better known nowadays as the electron, which was only to be discovered seven years later by J. J. Thomson. Second, he is describing electrophilic aromatic substitution, proceeding (third) through a Wheland intermediate, in which (fourth) the conjugation of the ring is broken. He introduced the symbol C centered on the ring as a shorthand for the inner cycle, thus anticipating Eric Clar's notation. It is argued that he also anticipated the nature of wave mechanics, since he recognized that his affinities had direction, not merely being point particles, and collectively having a distribution that could be altered by introducing substituents onto the benzene ring (much as the distribution of the electric charge in a body is altered by bringing it near to another body).
The quantum mechanical origins of this stability, or aromaticity, were first modelled by Hückel in 1931. He was the first to separate the bonding electrons in sigma and pi electrons.
Characteristics of aromatic (Aryl) compounds
An aromatic compound contains a set of covalently-bound atoms with specific characteristics:
A delocalized conjugated π system, most commonly an arrangement of alternating single and double bonds
Coplanar structure, with all the contributing atoms in the same plane
Contributing atoms arranged in one or more rings
A number of π delocalized electrons that is even, but not a multiple of 4. This is known as Hückel's rule. Permissible numbers of π electrons include 2, 6, 10, 14, and so on
Special reactivity in organic reactions such as electrophilic aromatic substitution and nucleophilic aromatic substitution
Whereas benzene is aromatic (6 electrons, from 3 double bonds), cyclobutadiene is not, since the number of π delocalized electrons is 4, which of course is a multiple of 4. The cyclobutadienide (2−) ion, however, is aromatic (6 electrons). An atom in an aromatic system can have other electrons that are not part of the system, and are therefore ignored for the 4n + 2 rule. In furan, the oxygen atom is sp² hybridized. One lone pair is in the π system and the other in the plane of the ring (analogous to C-H bond on the other positions). There are 6 π electrons, so furan is aromatic.
Aromatic molecules typically display enhanced chemical stability, compared to similar non-aromatic molecules. The circulating π electrons in an aromatic molecule produce ring currents that oppose the applied magnetic field in NMR. The NMR signal of protons in the plane of an aromatic ring are shifted substantially further down-field than those on non-aromatic sp² carbons. This is an important way of detecting aromaticity. By the same mechanism, the signals of protons located near the ring axis are shifted up-field. Planar monocyclic molecules containing 4n π electrons are called antiaromatic and are, in general, destabilized. Molecules that could be antiaromatic will tend to alter their electronic or conformational structure to avoid this situation, thereby becoming non-aromatic. For example, cyclooctatetraene (COT) distorts itself out of planarity, breaking π overlap between adjacent double bonds. Aromatic molecules are able to interact with each other in so-called π-π stacking: the π systems form two parallel rings overlap in a "face-to-face" orientation. Aromatic molecules are also able to interact with each other in an "edge-to-face" orientation: the slight positive charge of the substituents on the ring atoms of one molecule are attracted to the slight negative charge of the aromatic system on another molecule.
Many of the earliest-known examples of aromatic compounds, such as benzene and toluene, have distinctive pleasant smells. This property led to the term "aromatic" for this class of compounds, and hence to "aromaticity" being the eventually-discovered electronic property of them.

Aromatic compound classifications

The key aromatic hydrocarbons of commercial interest are benzene, toluene, ortho-xylene and para-xylene. About 35 million tonnes are produced worldwide every year. They are extracted from complex mixtures obtained by the refining of oil or by distillation of coal tar, and are used to produce a range of important chemicals and polymers, including styrene, phenol, aniline, polyester and nylon.

Heterocyclics

In heterocyclic aromatics, one or more of the atoms in the aromatic ring is of an element other than carbon. This can lessen the ring's aromaticity, and thus (as in the case of furan) increase its reactivity. Other examples include pyridine, imidazole, pyrazole, oxazole, thiophene, and their benzannulated analogs (benzimidazole, for example).

Polycyclics

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are molecules containing two or more simple aromatic rings fused together by sharing two neighboring carbon atoms (see also simple aromatic rings). Examples are naphthalene, anthracene and phenanthrene.
Substituted aromatics
Many chemical compounds contain simple aromatic rings in their structure. Examples include trinitrotoluene (TNT), acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), paracetamol, and DNA, which contains both purine and pyrimidine.
Aromaticity in other systems
Aromaticity is found in ions as well: the cyclopropenyl cation (2e system), the cyclopentadienyl anion (6e system), the tropylium ion (6e) and the cyclooctatetraene dianion (10e). Aromatic properties have been attributed to non-benzenoid compounds such as tropone. Aromatic properties are tested to the limit in a class of compounds called cyclophanes.
A special case of aromaticity is found in homoaromaticity where conjugation is interrupted by a single sp³ hybridized carbon atom. When carbon in benzene is replaced by other elements in borabenzene, silabenzene, germanabenzene, stannabenzene, phosphorine or pyrylium salts the aromaticity is still retained. Aromaticity is also not limited to compounds of carbon, oxygen and nitrogen.
Metal aromaticity is believed to exist in certain metal clusters of aluminium. Möbius aromaticity occurs when a cyclic system of molecular orbitals formed from pπ atomic orbitals and populated in a closed shell by 4n (n is an integer) electrons is given a single half-twist to correspond to a Möbius topology. Because the twist can be left-handed or right-handed, the resulting Möbius aromatics are dissymmetric or chiral. Up to now there is no doubtless proof, that a Möbius aromatic molecule was synthesized.Aromatics with two half-twists corresponding to the paradromic topologies first suggested by Johann Listing have been proposed by Rzepa in 2005.In carbo-benzene the ring bonds are extended with alkyne and allene groups.

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Synthesised Hydrocarbons |Metal-Organic Frameworks | Polymer

Synthesised Hydrocarbons

An alternative to hydrides is to use regular hydrocarbon fuels as the hydrogen carrier. Then a small hydrogen reformer would extract the hydrogen as needed by the fuel cell. However, these reformers are slow to react to changes in demand and add a large incremental cost to the vehicle powertrain.
Direct methanol fuel cells do not require a reformer, but provide a lower energy density compared to conventional fuel cells, although this could be counter balanced with the much better energy densities of ethanol and methanol over hydrogen. Alcohol fuel is a renewable resource.
Solid-oxide fuel cells can run on light hydrocarbons such as propane and methane without a reformer, or can run on higher hydrocarbons with only partial reforming, but the high temperature and slow startup time of these fuel cells makes them prohibitive for automobiles.

Carbon nanotubes



Hydrogen carriers based on nanostructured carbon (such as carbon buckyballs and nanotubes) have been proposed. Despite occasional claims of greater than 50 wt% hydrogen storage, it has generally come to be accepted that less than 1 wt% is practical.

Metal-Organic Frameworks

Another class of synthetic porous materials that could store hydrogen efficiently are Metal-Organic Frameworks. In 2006, chemists at UCLA and the University of Michigan have achieved hydrogen storage concentrations of up to 7.5% weight in a Metal Organic Framework material. However, the storage was achieved at the low temperature of 77 Kelvin.

Polymer

Aug 4 2006 - A team of Korean researchers led by Professor Lim Ji-sun of Seoul National University’s School of Physics found a new material with the hydrogen storage efficiency of 7.6 percent based on first-principles electronic structure calculations for hydrogen binding to metal-decorated polymers of many different kinds, the hydrogen can be stored in solid matter in normal temperatures and pressures by attaching a titanium atom to a polyacetylene.

Glass microspheres

Hollow glass microspheres can be utilized for controlled storage and release of hydrogen.
Hydrogen-Storage Materials Based on Imidazolium Ionic Liquids
In 2007 Dupont and others reported Hydrogen-Storage Materials Based on Imidazolium Ionic Liquids. Simple alkyl(aryl)-3-methylimidazolium N-bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imidate salts that possess very low vapour pressure, high density, and thermal stability and are not inflammable can add reversibly 6-12 hydrogen atoms in the presence of classical Pd/C or Ir0 nanoparticle catalysts and can be used as alternative materials for on-board hydrogen-storage devices. These salts can hold up to 30 g L-1 of hydrogen at atmospheric pressure, which is twice that compressed hydrogen gas can attain at 350

Phosphonium borate

In 2006 researchers of University of Windsor reported on reversible hydrogen storage in a non-metal phosphonium borate .The phosphino-borane on the left accepts one equivalent of hydrogen at one atmosphere and 25°C and expels it again by heating to 100°C. The storage capacity is 0.25 wt% still rather below the 6 to 9 wt% required for practical use.

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Triaryl Phosphate | Phosphorus Flame Retardant

Triaryl Phosphate (T.A.P.)

Phosphorus Flame Retardant

TAP ( Triaryl Phosphate ) is a low viscosity synthetic Triaryl phosphate ester, Triaryl Phosphate finds uses in wide variety of application as Flame retardant plasticizer

Uses of riaryl Phosphate (T.A.P.)

Leather cloth (PVC) : Upholstery, Book binding, Seat covers
Utility articles: Footwear, Raincoats, Handbags, Fiber glass cellulose acetate
Extruded articles : Cables (PVC & rubber), hoses, flexible pipe, coal mining, conveyor belts
Coatings: Nitrocellulose lacquers, phenolic resins, lube oils

Typical properties
Physical appearance :Clear Liquid
Phosphorus content:wt % 9.0
Specific gravity @ 25° C:1.21±0.005
Boiling Point (decomposes )°C :415° C
Flash Point °C :220°C
Solubility (G/100 g Solvent): Water Insoluble , Completely soluble in Methylene chloride ,Methanol ,Toluene ,Methyl Ethyl Ketone

TAP is recommended for use in plastisols for fabrics coating in formulation of fire resistant fluid and other applications where its low, stable viscosity offers improved processing.
TAP can give a driver finish to coated fabrics than other Triaryl phosphate EASTER. TAP has high plastcizers efficiency that enables formulator to achieve better flame retardance at lower cost. It can also be used as flame retardant in phenolic laminates The use of proper equipment is recommended. Excess exposure to the product should be avioded.
Wash thoroughly after handling. Product should be stored in cool, dry and well ventilated area away from incompatible materials. Unless stated, shelf life of the product will be 12 months from the date of packing. For additional handling & toxicological information, consult PAC Material safety Data sheet.

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Isotopes | High Resolution Mass Spectrometry

Isotopes

Since a mass spectrometer separates and detects ions of slightly different masses, it easily distinguishes different isotopes of a given element. This is manifested most dramatically for compounds containing bromine and chlorine, as illustrated by the following examples. Since molecules of bromine have only two atoms, the spectrum on the left will come as a surprise if a single atomic mass of 80 amu is assumed for Br. The five peaks in this spectrum demonstrate clearly that natural bromine consists of a nearly 50:50 mixture of isotopes having atomic masses of 79 and 81 amu respectively. Thus, the bromine molecule may be composed of two 79Br atoms (mass 158 amu), two 81Br atoms (mass 162 amu) or the more probable combina3. tion of 79Br-81Br (mass 160 amu). Fragmentation of Br2 to a bromine cation then gives rise to equal sized ion peaks at 79 and 81 amu.

The presence of chlorine or bromine in a molecule or ion is easily detected by noticing the intensity ratios of ions differing by 2 amu. In the case of methylene chloride, the molecular ion consists of three peaks at m/z=84, 86 & 88 amu, and their diminishing intensities may be calculated from the natural abundances given above. Loss of a chlorine atom gives two isotopic fragment ions at m/z=49 & 51amu, clearly incorporating a single chlorine atom. Fluorine and iodine, by contrast, are monoisotopic, having masses of 19 amu and 127 amu respectively. It should be noted that the presence of halogen atoms in a molecule or fragment ion does not change the odd-even mass rules given above.

Two other common elements having useful isotope signatures are carbon, 13C is 1.1% natural abundance, and sulfur, 33S and 34S are 0.76% and 4.22% natural abundance respectively. For example, the small m/z=99 amu peak in the spectrum of 4-methyl-3-pentene-2-one (above) is due to the presence of a single 13C atom in the molecular ion. Although less important in this respect, 15N and 18O also make small contributions to higher mass satellites of molecular ions incorporating these elements.

Fragmentation Patterns

The fragmentation of molecular ions into an assortment of fragment ions is a mixed blessing. The nature of the fragments often provides a clue to the molecular structure, but if the molecular ion has a lifetime of less than a few microseconds it will not survive long enough to be observed. Without a molecular ion peak as a reference, the difficulty of interpreting a mass spectrum increases markedly. Fortunately, most organic compounds give mass spectra that include a molecular ion, and those that do not often respond successfully to the use of milder ionization conditions. Among simple organic compounds, the most stable molecular ions are those from aromatic rings, other conjugated pi-electron systems and cycloalkanes. Alcohols, ethers and highly branched alkanes generally show the greatest tendency toward fragmentation.
The mass spectrum of dodecane illustrates the behavior of an unbranched alkane. Since there are no heteroatoms in this molecule, there are no non-bonding valence shell electrons. Consequently, the radical cation character of the molecular ion (m/z = 170) is delocalized over all the covalent bonds. Fragmentation of C-C bonds occurs because they are usually weaker than C-H bonds, and this produces a mixture of alkyl radicals and alkyl carbocations. The positive charge commonly resides on the smaller fragment, so we see a homologous series of hexyl (m/z = 85), pentyl (m/z = 71), butyl (m/z = 57), propyl (m/z = 43), ethyl (m/z = 29) and methyl (m/z = 15) cations. These are accompanied by a set of corresponding alkenyl carbocations (e.g. m/z = 55, 41 &27) formed by loss of 2 H. All of the significant fragment ions in this spectrum are even-electron ions. In most alkane spectra the propyl and butyl ions are the most abundant.

The presence of a functional group, particularly one having a heteroatom Y with non-bonding valence electrons (Y = N, O, S, X etc.), can dramatically alter the fragmentation pattern of a compound. This influence is thought to occur because of a "localization" of the radical cation component of the molecular ion on the heteroatom. After all, it is easier to remove (ionize) a non-bonding electron than one that is part of a covalent bond. By localizing the reactive moiety, certain fragmentation processes will be favored. These are summarized in the following diagram, where the green shaded box at the top displays examples of such "localized" molecular ions. The first two fragmentation paths lead to even-electron ions, and the elimination (path #3) gives an odd-electron ion. Note the use of different curved arrows to show single electron shifts compared with electron pair shifts.

The charge distributions shown above are common, but for each cleavage process the charge may sometimes be carried by the other (neutral) species, and both fragment ions are observed. Of the three cleavage reactions described here, the alpha-cleavage is generally favored for nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur compounds. Indeed, in the previously displayed spectra of 4-methyl-3-pentene-2-one and N,N-diethylmethylamine the major fragment ions come from alpha-cleavages

The complexity of fragmentation patterns has led to mass spectra being used as "fingerprints" for identifying compounds. Environmental pollutants, pesticide residues on food, and controlled substance identification are but a few examples of this application. Extremely small samples of an unknown substance (a microgram or less) are sufficient for such analysis.
The following mass spectrum of cocaine demonstrates how a forensic laboratory might determine the nature of an unknown street drug.
Even though extensive fragmentation has occurred, many of the more abundant ions (identified by magenta numbers) can be rationalized by the three mechanisms shown above. The m/z = 42 ion might be any or all of the following: C3H6, C2H2O or C2H4N. A precise assignment could be made from a high-resolution m/z value (next section).Odd-electron fragment ions are often formed by characteristic rearrangements in which stable neutral fragments are lost. Mechanisms for some of these rearrangements have been identified by following the course of isotopically labeled molecular ions.

5. High Resolution Mass Spectrometry

Formula C6H12 C5H8O C4H8N2

Mass 84.0939 84.0575 84.0688

In assigning mass values to atoms and molecules, we have assumed integral values for isotopic masses. However, accurate measurements show that this is not strictly true. Because the strong nuclear forces that bind the components of an atomic nucleus together vary, the actual mass of a given isotope deviates from its nominal integer by a small but characteristic amount (remember E = mc2). Thus, relative to 12C at 12.0000, the isotopic mass of 16O is 15.9949 amu (not 16) and 14N is 14.0031 amu (not 14). By designing mass spectrometers that can determine m/z values accurately to four decimal places, it is possible to distinguish different formulas having the same nominal mass. The table on the right illustrates this important feature, and a double-focusing high-resolution mass spectrometer easily distinguishes ions having these compositions. Mass spectrometry therefore not only provides a specific molecular mass value, but it may also establish the molecular formula of an unknown compound.

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HOW TO CLEAN pH ELECTRODES | HOW TO REJUVENATE pH ELECTRODES

HOW TO CLEAN pH ELECTRODES

Cleaning of the electrode (note that in case of gel electrodes replacing of the reference solution is usually impossible):

General
Soak in 0.1M HCl for half an hour.
Drain and refill the reference solution.
Soak the electrode in filling solution for one hour.

Inorganic:
Soak in 0.1M tetrasodium EDTA solution for 15 minutes.
Drain and refill the reference solution.
Soak the electrode in filling solution for one hour.

Protein:
Soak in 1% pepsin / 0.1M HCl for 15 minutes.
Drain and refill the reference solution.
Soak the electrode in filling solution for one hour.

Grease and Oil:
Rinse with detergent or ethanol solution.
Drain and refill the reference solution.
Soak the electrode in filling solution for one hour. Electrode response may be enhanced by substituting a mixture of 1:1 pH 4 buffer and filling solution for the soaking solution.

Cleaning of the clogged junction:
Pollution by sulfides:
Use a solution of 8% thiocarbamide in 1 mol/L HCl.
Keep the electrode in the above solution till junction's color turns pale.
Pollution by silver chloride:
Use concentrated ammonia solution.
Keep the electrode in the above solution for about 12 hours.
Rinse and put into pH 4 buffer for at least 1 hour.
Other contamination have to be removed by cleaning with distilled water, alcohol or mixtures of acids. If nothing else helps you may consider use of ultrasonic cleaner as last resort.



HOW TO REJUVENATE pH ELECTRODES

Note: following procedures are a last resort. They may work, they may won't. You may try them before throwing electrode away.

First of all - clean the electrode as described in electrode cleaning section, then:

Soak the electrode for 4-8 hours in 1M HCl solution.

Rinse it and move to pH 7 buffer for an hour.

Give it a try.

If the electrode is still not working:
Fill the electrode with filling solution.
Move to the fume hood!
Place the electrode in the 10% nitric acid solution on a hotplate. Heat to boiling, and keep it in the solution for 10 minutes.
Place 50 mL of filling solution in a second clean beaker. Heat, although boiling is not necessary.
While the electrode is still hot, transfer it to the beaker of heated filling solution. Set aside to cool. When the electrode has cooled, test the electrode as described in the testing electrode parameters section. This rejuvenating procedure is particularly effective with gel filled combination electrodes. Do not be concerned if a small amount of the gel protrudes through the reference frit during the boiling in nitric acid step. This is both acceptable and useful.

If this procedure does not result in a pH electrode that responds quickly and has a slope of 55 - 61 mV/pH unit, the electrode is unrecoverable and should be thrown away. Remember, the procedure was proposed for the electrode that was to be thrown away anyway.
Some manufacturers suggest the electrode may be reactivated by treating with a diluted solution of hydrofluoric acid followed by subsequent conditioning in electrolyte. Before considering the procedure, take into account that hydrofluoric acid is extremally dangerous! Safer (but still dangerous) approach can be to use some slightly acidic solution containing fluorides, like 20 wt% ammonium bifluoride, NH4HF2 - put glass bulb part of the electrode in the solution for a minute followed by 15 seconds bath in 6 M hydrochloric acid. Rinse the electrode well and soak for 24 hours in a pH buffer with pH .

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Bond Stretching

Energy due to Bond Stretching Whenever a bond is compressed or stretched the the energy goes up.

The energy potential for bond stretching and compressing is described by an equation similar to Hooke's law for a spring, except a cubic term is added.

This cubic term helps to keep the energy from rising too sharply as the bond is stretched.

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